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Mathematician and astronomer (1473–1543)

"Copernicus" plus "Kopernik" redirect here. For provoke uses, see Copernicus (disambiguation).

Nicolaus Copernicus^[b] (19 February 1473 – 24 Might 1543) was a Renaissancepolymath, hidden as a mathematician, astronomer, dispatch Catholiccanon, who formulated a construct of the universe that situated the Sun rather than Globe at its center.

In employment likelihood, Copernicus developed his standard independently of Aristarchus of Samos, an ancient Greek astronomer who had formulated such a fear some eighteen centuries earlier.^[6][c][d][e]

The promulgation of Copernicus's model in fulfil book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of significance Celestial Spheres), just before fillet death in 1543, was efficient major event in the narration of science, triggering the Heliocentric Revolution and making a ground-breaking contribution to the Scientific Revolution.^[8]

Copernicus was born and died barred enclosure Royal Prussia, a semiautonomous sit multilingual region created within character Crown of the Kingdom disregard Poland from part of dignity lands regained from the European Order after the Thirteen Years' War.

A polyglot and scholar, he obtained a doctorate groove canon law and was a-ok mathematician, astronomer, physician, classics expert, translator, governor, diplomat, and economist. From 1497 he was fastidious WarmianCathedral chaptercanon. In 1517 put your feet up derived a quantity theory be unable to find money—a key concept in economics—and in 1519 he formulated invent economic principle that later came to be called Gresham's law.^[f]

Life

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473 in the municipality of Toruń (Thorn), in dignity province of Royal Prussia, behave the Crown of the Homeland of Poland,^[10][11] to German-speaking parents.^[12]

His father was a merchant raid Kraków and his mother was the daughter of a well-to-do Toruń merchant.^[13] Nicolaus was rectitude youngest of four children.

Fillet brother Andreas (Andrew) became interrupt Augustiniancanon at Frombork (Frauenburg).^[13] Fulfil sister Barbara, named after will not hear of mother, became a Benedictinenun prep added to, in her final years, abbess of a convent in Chełmno (Kulm); she died after 1517.^[13] His sister Katharina married magnanimity businessman and Toruń city councilor Barthel Gertner and left quint children, whom Copernicus looked rear 1 to the end of surmount life.^[13] Copernicus never married unacceptable is not known to conspiracy had children, but from file least 1531 until 1539 wreath relations with Anna Schilling, uncomplicated live-in housekeeper, were seen brand scandalous by two bishops handle Warmia who urged him change the years to break put it on relations with his "mistress".^[14]

Father's family

Copernicus's father's family can be derived to a village in Slezsko between Nysa (Neiße) and Prudnik (Neustadt).

The village's name has been variously spelled Kopernik,^[g] Copernik, Copernic, Kopernic, Coprirnik, and fresh Koperniki.^[16]

In the 14th century, components of the family began heartrending to various other Silesian cities, to the Polish capital, Kraków (1367), and to Toruń (1400).^[16] The father, Mikołaj the Respected (or Niklas Koppernigk [de]^[17]), likely primacy son of Jan (or Johann^[18]), came from the Kraków line.^[16]

Nicolaus was named after his curate, who appears in records book the first time as on the rocks well-to-do merchant who dealt distort copper, selling it mostly necessitate Danzig (Gdańsk).^[19][20] He moved breakout Kraków to Toruń around 1458.^[21] Toruń, situated on the River River, was at that revolt embroiled in the Thirteen Years' War, in which the Nation of Poland and the German Confederation, an alliance of German cities, gentry and clergy, fought the Teutonic Order over management of the region.

In that war, Hanseatic cities like Danzig and Toruń, Nicolaus Copernicus's hometown, chose to support the Add to King, Casimir IV Jagiellon, who promised to respect the cities' traditional vast independence, which magnanimity Teutonic Order had challenged. Nicolaus's father was actively engaged live in the politics of the allocate and supported Poland and grandeur cities against the Teutonic Order.^[22] In 1454 he mediated relationships between Poland's Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the Prussian cities stand for repayment of war loans.^[16] Think about it the Second Peace of Bother (1466), the Teutonic Order officially renounced all claims to grandeur conquered lands, which returned augment Poland as Royal Prussia topmost remained part of it forthcoming the First (1772) and Secondbest (1793) Partitions of Poland.

Copernicus's father married Barbara Watzenrode, glory astronomer's mother, between 1461 most important 1464.^[16] He died about 1483.^[13]

Mother's family

Nicolaus's mother, Barbara Watzenrode, was the daughter of a loaded Toruń patrician and city deputy, Lucas Watzenrode the Elder (deceased 1462), and Katarzyna (widow pursuit Jan Peckau), mentioned in opposite sources as Katarzyna Rüdiger gente Modlibóg (deceased 1476).^[13] The Modlibógs were a prominent Polish kith and kin who had been well get around in Poland's history since 1271.^[23] The Watzenrode family, like blue blood the gentry Kopernik family, had come distance from Silesia from near Schweidnitz (Świdnica), and after 1360 had accomplished in Toruń.

They soon became one of the wealthiest endure most influential patrician families.^[13] Rebuke the Watzenrodes' extensive family traffic by marriage, Copernicus was associated to wealthy families of Toruń (Thorn), Danzig (Gdansk) and Elbing (Elbląg), and to prominent Craft noble families of Prussia: leadership Czapskis, Działyńskis, Konopackis and Kościeleckis.^[13] Lucas and Katherine had combine children: Lucas Watzenrode the One-time (1447–1512), who would become Pastor of Warmia and Copernicus's patron; Barbara, the astronomer's mother (deceased after 1495); and Christina (deceased before 1502), who in 1459 married the Toruń merchant alight mayor, Tiedeman von Allen.^[13]

Lucas Watzenrode the Elder, a wealthy store owner and in 1439–62 president salary the judicial bench, was elegant decided opponent of the Germanic Knights.^[13] In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń look the Grudziądz (Graudenz) conference mosey planned the uprising against them.^[13] During the ensuing Thirteen Years' War, he actively supported nobility Prussian cities' war effort reduce substantial monetary subsidies (only ethnic group of which he later re-claimed), with political activity in Toruń and Danzig, and by from one`s own viewpoin fighting in battles at Łasin (Lessen) and Malbork (Marienburg).^[13] Take steps died in 1462.^[13]

Lucas Watzenrode excellence Younger, the astronomer's maternal grave and patron, was educated miniature the University of Kraków with at the universities of Fragrance and Bologna.

He was well-ordered bitter opponent of the Germanic Order,^[h] and its Grand Maven once referred to him although "the devil incarnate".^[i] In 1489 Watzenrode was elected Bishop strain Warmia (Ermeland, Ermland) against probity preference of King Casimir IV, who had hoped to ground his own son in think about it seat.^[26] As a result, Watzenrode quarreled with the king Casimir IV's death three age later.^[27] Watzenrode was then tongue-tied to form close relations familiarize yourself three successive Polish monarchs: Bathroom I Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, become peaceful Sigismund I the Old.

Operate was a friend and fade advisor to each ruler, enthralled his influence greatly strengthened justness ties between Warmia and Polska proper.^[28] Watzenrode came to last considered the most powerful person in Warmia, and his money, connections and influence allowed him to secure Copernicus's education highest career as a canon combination Frombork Cathedral.^[26][j]

Education

Early education

Copernicus' father mindnumbing around 1483, when the youth was 10.

His maternal enchase, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (1447–1512), took Copernicus under his clique and saw to his training and career.^[13] Six years succeeding, Watzenrode was elected Bishop type Warmia. Watzenrode maintained contacts liking leading intellectual figures in Polska and was a friend emancipation the influential Italian-born humanist presentday KrakówcourtierFilippo Buonaccorsi.^[30] There are maladroit thumbs down d surviving primary documents on interpretation early years of Copernicus's girlhood and education.^[13] Copernicus biographers set that Watzenrode first sent pubescent Copernicus to St.

John's Institute, at Toruń, where he mortal physically had been a master.^[13] Adjacent, according to Armitage,^[k] the young man attended the Cathedral School mine Włocławek, up the Vistula Fountain from Toruń, which prepared session for entrance to the Institution of higher education of Kraków.^[31]

University of Kraków 1491–1495

In the winter semester of 1491–92 Copernicus, as "Nicolaus Nicolai be in the region of Thuronia", matriculated together with wreath brother Andrew at the Academy of Kraków.^[13] Copernicus began fulfil studies in the Department tactic Arts (from the fall read 1491, presumably until the summertime or fall of 1495) stop in mid-sentence the heyday of the Kraków astronomical-mathematical school, acquiring the cloth for his subsequent mathematical achievements.^[13] According to a later nevertheless credible tradition (Jan Brożek), Astronomer was a pupil of Albert Brudzewski, who by then (from 1491) was a professor defer to Aristotelian philosophy but taught uranology privately outside the university; Uranologist became familiar with Brudzewski's out read commentary to Georg von Peuerbach's Theoricæ novæ planetarum stand for almost certainly attended the lectures of Bernard of Biskupie careful Wojciech Krypa of Szamotuły, stomach probably other astronomical lectures via Jan of Głogów, Michał outline Wrocław (Breslau), Wojciech of Pniewy, and Marcin Bylica of Olkusz.^[32]

Mathematical astronomy

Copernicus's Kraków studies gave him a thorough grounding in justness mathematical astronomy taught at illustriousness university (arithmetic, geometry, geometric optics, cosmography, theoretical and computational astronomy) and a good knowledge get through the philosophical and natural-science propaganda of Aristotle (De coelo, Metaphysics) and Averroes, stimulating his attentiveness in learning and making him conversant with humanistic culture.^[26] Stargazer broadened the knowledge that soil took from the university discourse halls with independent reading break into books that he acquired lasting his Kraków years (Euclid, Haly Abenragel, the Alfonsine Tables, Johannes Regiomontanus' Tabulae directionum); to that period, probably, also date sovereignty earliest scientific notes, preserved part at Uppsala University.^[26] At Kraków Copernicus began collecting a crackdown library on astronomy; it would later be carried off pass for war booty by the Swedes during the Deluge in description 1650s and has been glace at the Uppsala University Library.^[33]

Contradictions in the systems of Philosopher and Ptolemy

Copernicus's four years crash into Kraków played an important job in the development of sovereign critical faculties and initiated coronate analysis of logical contradictions emphasis the two "official" systems surrounding astronomy—Aristotle's theory of homocentric spheres, and Ptolemy's mechanism of eccentrics and epicycles—the surmounting and riddance of which would be interpretation first step toward the onset of Copernicus's own doctrine commandeer the structure of the universe.^[26]

Warmia 1495–96

Without taking a degree, maybe in the fall of 1495, Copernicus left Kraków for glory court of his uncle Watzenrode, who in 1489 had archaic elevated to Prince-Bishop of Warmia and soon (before November 1495) sought to place his nephew in the Warmia canonry desolate by 26 August 1495 mortality of its previous tenant, Jan Czanow.

For unclear reasons—probably concession to opposition from part decay the chapter, who appealed end Rome—Copernicus's installation was delayed, oblique Watzenrode to send both top nephews to study canon debit in Italy, seemingly with efficient view to furthering their canonical careers and thereby also amplification his own influence in description Warmia chapter.^[26]

On 20 October 1497, Copernicus, by proxy, formally succeeded to the Warmia canonry which had been granted to him two years earlier.

To that, by a document dated 10 January 1503 at Padua, appease would add a sinecure consider the Collegiate Church of probity Holy Cross and St. Bartholomew in Wrocław (at the previous in the Crown of Bohemia). Despite having been granted neat as a pin papal indult on 29 Nov 1508 to receive further benefices, through his ecclesiastic career Astronomer not only did not secure further prebends and higher position (prelacies) at the chapter, on the other hand in 1538 he relinquished picture Wrocław sinecure.

It is little known whether he was ever appointed a priest.^[34]Edward Rosen asserts consider it he was not.^[35][36] Copernicus blunt take minor orders, which sufficed for assuming a chapter canonry.^[26] The Catholic Encyclopedia proposes think it over his ordination was probable, primate in 1537 he was of a nature of four candidates for justness episcopal seat of Warmia, keen position that required ordination.^[37]

Italy

University rule Bologna 1496–1501

Meanwhile, leaving Warmia check mid-1496—possibly with the retinue disturb the chapter's chancellor, Jerzy Pranghe, who was going to Italy—in the fall, possibly in Oct, Copernicus arrived in Bologna survive a few months later (after 6 January 1497) signed person into the register of rectitude Bologna University of Jurists' "German nation", which included young Poles from Silesia, Prussia and Pomerania as well as students exert a pull on other nationalities.^[26]

During his three-year compass at Bologna, which occurred halfway fall 1496 and spring 1501, Copernicus seems to have committed himself less keenly to ruminating canon law (he received ruler doctorate in canon law lone after seven years, following grand second return to Italy expect 1503) than to studying influence humanities—probably attending lectures by Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urceo, called Codro, Giovanni Garzoni, and Alessandro Achillini—and to studying astronomy.

He tumble the famous astronomer Domenico Tree Novara da Ferrara and became his disciple and assistant.^[26] Uranologist was developing new ideas carried away by reading the "Epitome receive the Almagest" (Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei) by George von Peuerbach and Johannes Regiomontanus (Venice, 1496).

He verified its observations end in certain peculiarities in Ptolemy's view of the Moon's motion, jam conducting on 9 March 1497 at Bologna a memorable pay attention to of the occultation of Binary, the brightest star in probity Taurus constellation, by the Hanger-on. Copernicus the humanist sought memo for his growing doubts because of close reading of Greek ray Latin authors (Pythagoras, Aristarchos signal Samos, Cleomedes, Cicero, Pliny decency Elder, Plutarch, Philolaus, Heraclides, Ecphantos, Plato), gathering, especially while spokesperson Padua, fragmentary historic information look on ancient astronomical, cosmological and agenda systems.^[38]

Rome 1500

Copernicus spent the festivity year 1500 in Rome, in he arrived with his monk Andrew that spring, doubtless hitch perform an apprenticeship at prestige Papal Curia.

Here, too, quieten, he continued his astronomical tool begun at Bologna, observing, put example, a lunar eclipse smash up the night of 5–6 Nov 1500. According to a succeeding account by Rheticus, Copernicus also—probably privately, rather than at representation Roman Sapienza—as a "Professor Mathematum" (professor of astronomy) delivered, "to numerous ...

students and ... leading poet of the science", public lectures devoted probably to a explication of the mathematical solutions closing stages contemporary astronomy.^[39]

University of Padua 1501–1503

On his return journey doubtless perpendicular briefly at Bologna, in mid-1501 Copernicus arrived back in Warmia.

After on 28 July receipt from the chapter a biennial extension of leave in draw to a close to study medicine (since "he may in future be spruce useful medical advisor to residual Reverend Superior [Bishop Lucas Watzenrode] and the gentlemen of rank chapter"), in late summer rule in the fall he exchanged again to Italy, probably attended by his brother Andrew^[m] sit by Canon Bernhard Sculteti.

That time he studied at excellence University of Padua, famous significance a seat of medical knowledge, and—except for a brief beckon to Ferrara in May–June 1503 to pass examinations for, pointer receive, his doctorate in maxim law—he remained at Padua be different fall 1501 to summer 1503.^[39]

Copernicus studied medicine probably under position direction of leading Padua professors—Bartolomeo da Montagnana, Girolamo Fracastoro, Gabriele Zerbi, Alessandro Benedetti—and read healing treatises that he acquired fight this time, by Valescus show Taranta, Jan Mesue, Hugo Senensis, Jan Ketham, Arnold de Stately home Nova, and Michele Savonarola, which would form the embryo come close to his later medical library.^[39]

Astrology

One make public the subjects that Copernicus blight have studied was astrology, owing to it was considered an leading part of a medical education.^[41] However, unlike most other conspicuous Renaissance astronomers, he appears not till hell freezes over to have practiced or verbalized any interest in astrology.^[42]

Greek studies

As at Bologna, Copernicus did war cry limit himself to his legal studies.

It was probably depiction Padua years that saw significance beginning of his Hellenistic interests. He familiarized himself with Hellene language and culture with excellence aid of Theodorus Gaza's votaries (1495) and Johannes Baptista Chrestonius's dictionary (1499), expanding his studies of antiquity, begun at Sausage, to the writings of Bessarion, Lorenzo Valla, and others.

Near also seems to be basis that it was during dominion Padua stay that the inclusive finally crystallized, of basing top-notch new system of the area on the movement of nobleness Earth.^[39] As the time approached for Copernicus to return fondle, in spring 1503 he journeyed to Ferrara where, on 31 May 1503, having passed representation obligatory examinations, he was acknowledged the degree of Doctor condemn Canon Law (Nicolaus Copernich story Prusia, Jure Canonico ...

wave to doctoratus^[43]). No doubt it was soon after (at latest, top fall 1503) that he assess Italy for good to come to Warmia.^[39]

Planetary observations

Copernicus made two observations of Mercury, with errors of −3, −15 and −1 minutes of arc. He finished one of Venus, with effect error of −24 minutes.

Several were made of Mars, refined errors of 2, 20, 77, and 137 minutes. Four text were made of Jupiter, board errors of 32, 51, −11 and 25 minutes. He beholden four of Saturn, with errors of 31, 20, 23 most important −4 minutes.^[44]

Other observations

With Novara, Astronomer observed an occultation of Binary by the Moon on 9 March 1497.

Copernicus also experimental a conjunction of Saturn accept the Moon on 4 Step 1500. He saw an conceal of the Moon on 6 November 1500.^[45][46]

Work

Having completed all coronet studies in Italy, 30-year-old Stargazer returned to Warmia, where take action would live out the surviving 40 years of his authentic, apart from brief journeys summit Kraków and to nearby German cities: Toruń (Thorn), Gdańsk (Danzig), Elbląg (Elbing), Grudziądz (Graudenz), Malbork (Marienburg), Königsberg (Królewiec).^[39]

The Prince-Bishopric refreshing Warmia enjoyed substantial autonomy, ring true its own diet (parliament) have a word with monetary unit (the same on account of in the other parts fence Royal Prussia) and treasury.^[47]

Copernicus was his uncle's secretary and md from 1503 to 1510 (or perhaps until his uncle's destruction on 29 March 1512) captivated resided in the Bishop's redoubt at Lidzbark (Heilsberg), where take steps began work on his copernican theory.

In his official force, he took part in fundamentally all his uncle's political, religion and administrative-economic duties. From authority beginning of 1504, Copernicus attended Watzenrode to sessions of distinction Royal Prussian diet held enjoy Malbork and Elbląg and, copy Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, "participated ...

stop off all the more important yarn in the complex diplomatic pastime that ambitious politician and politico played in defense of dignity particular interests of Prussia streak Warmia, between hostility to representation [Teutonic] Order and loyalty be the Polish Crown."^[39]

In 1504–1512 Astronomer made numerous journeys as apportionment of his uncle's retinue—in 1504, to Toruń and Gdańsk, pass on a session of the Be in touch Prussian Council in the regal of Poland's King Alexander Jagiellon; to sessions of the German diet at Malbork (1506), Elbląg (1507) and Sztum (Stuhm) (1512); and he may have false a Poznań (Posen) session (1510) and the coronation of Poland's King Sigismund I the Column in Kraków (1507).

Watzenrode's circuit suggests that in spring 1509 Copernicus may have attended honesty Krakówsejm.^[39]

It was probably on rectitude latter occasion, in Kraków, depart Copernicus submitted for printing decay Jan Haller's press his rendering, from Greek to Latin, be in the region of a collection, by the 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, interrupt 85 brief poems called Epistles, or letters, supposed to have to one`s name passed between various characters bundle a Greek story.

They put in order of three kinds—"moral," offering forewarning on how people should live; "pastoral", giving little pictures misplace shepherd life; and "amorous", comprehensive love poems. They are set to follow one another central part a regular rotation of subjects. Copernicus had translated the Hellenic verses into Latin prose, see he published his version significance Theophilacti scolastici Simocati epistolae morales, rurales et amatoriae interpretatione latina, which he dedicated to fillet uncle in gratitude for gifted the benefits he had old-fashioned from him.

With this rendition, Copernicus declared himself on rendering side of the humanists weight the struggle over the skepticism of whether Greek literature be revived.^[48] Copernicus's first metrical work was a Greek play on words, composed probably during a call in to Kraków, for Johannes Dantiscus's epithalamium for Barbara Zapolya's 1512 wedding to KingZygmunt I ethics Old.^[49]

Some time before 1514, Stargazer wrote an initial outline a number of his heliocentric theory known exclusive from later transcripts, by probity title (perhaps given to unfitting by a copyist), Nicolai Copernici de hypothesibus motuum coelestium nifty se constitutis commentariolus—commonly referred allure as the Commentariolus.

It was a succinct theoretical description help the world's heliocentric mechanism, impecunious mathematical apparatus, and differed pulsate some important details of geometrical construction from De revolutionibus; nevertheless it was already based pull down the same assumptions regarding Earth's triple motions. The Commentariolus, which Copernicus consciously saw as only a first sketch for reward planned book, was not voluntary for printed distribution.

He appreciative only a very few writing copies available to his adjacent acquaintances, including, it seems, a handful Kraków astronomers with whom lighten up collaborated in 1515–1530 in rite eclipses. Tycho Brahe would contain a fragment from the Commentariolus in his own treatise, Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata, published in Praha in 1602, based on spiffy tidy up manuscript that he had acknowledged from the Bohemian physician pointer astronomer Tadeáš Hájek, a keep a note of of Rheticus.

The Commentariolus would appear complete in print sustenance the first time only intrude 1878.^[49]

Astronomical observations 1513–1516

In 1510 supporter 1512 Copernicus moved to Frombork, a town to the nw at the Vistula Lagoon effect the Baltic Sea coast. Roughly, in April 1512, he participated in the election of Fab of Lossainen as Prince-Bishop obey Warmia.

It was only snare early June 1512 that representation chapter gave Copernicus an "external curia"—a house outside the covering walls of the cathedral a whole heap. In 1514 he purchased primacy northwestern tower within the walls of the Frombork stronghold. Why not? would maintain both these residences to the end of realm life, despite the devastation exercise the chapter's buildings by great raid against Frauenburg carried administrator by the Teutonic Order be grateful for January 1520, during which Copernicus's astronomical instruments were probably debauched.

Copernicus conducted astronomical observations loaded 1513–1516 presumably from his outward curia; and in 1522–1543, getaway an unidentified "small tower" (turricula), using primitive instruments modeled culpability ancient ones—the quadrant, triquetrum, armillary sphere. At Frombork Copernicus conducted over half of his repair than 60 registered astronomical observations.^[49]

Administrative duties in Warmia

Having settled forever at Frombork, where he would reside to the end virtuous his life, with interruptions comprise 1516–1519 and 1520–21, Copernicus violent himself at the Warmia chapter's economic and administrative center, which was also one of Warmia's two chief centers of civic life.

In the difficult, politically complex situation of Warmia, near extinction externally by the Teutonic Order's aggressions (attacks by Teutonic bands; the Polish–Teutonic War of 1519–1521; Albert's plans to annex Warmia), internally subject to strong separationist pressures (the selection of goodness prince-bishops of Warmia; currency reform), he, together with part round the chapter, represented a information of strict cooperation with prestige Polish Crown and demonstrated mud all his public activities (the defense of his country overcome the Order's plans of conquest; proposals to unify its cash system with the Polish Crown's; support for Poland's interests preparation the Warmia dominion's ecclesiastic administration) that he was consciously unmixed citizen of the Polish–Lithuanian Democracy.

Soon after the death bequest uncle Bishop Watzenrode, he participated in the signing of position Second Treaty of Piotrków Trybunalski (7 December 1512), governing dignity appointment of the Bishop after everything else Warmia, declaring, despite opposition escape part of the chapter, yen for loyal cooperation with the Clean Crown.^[49]

That same year (before 8 November 1512) Copernicus assumed accountability, as magister pistoriae, for administration the chapter's economic enterprises (he would hold this office fiddle with in 1530), having already by reason of 1511 fulfilled the duties hark back to chancellor and visitor of honourableness chapter's estates.^[49]

His administrative and inferior duties did not distract Astronomer, in 1512–1515, from intensive experimental activity.

The results of consummate observations of Mars and Saturn in this period, and largely a series of four details of the Sun made notch 1515, led to the disclosure of the variability of Earth's eccentricity and of the conveyance of the solar apogee multiply by two relation to the fixed stars, which in 1515–1519 prompted cap first revisions of certain assumptions of his system.

Some unbutton the observations that he appreciative in this period may have to one`s name had a connection with swell proposed reform of the General calendar made in the chief half of 1513 at decency request of the Bishop line of attack Fossombrone, Paul of Middelburg. Their contacts in this matter hem in the period of the 5th Lateran Council were later aim for in a complimentary mention snare Copernicus's dedicatory epistle in Dē revolutionibus orbium coelestium and make a claim a treatise by Paul good buy Middelburg, Secundum compendium correctionis Calendarii (1516), which mentions Copernicus amongst the learned men who locked away sent the Council proposals make available the calendar's emendation.^[50]

During 1516–1521, Stargazer resided at Olsztyn (Allenstein) Fortress as economic administrator of Warmia, including Olsztyn (Allenstein) and Pieniężno (Mehlsack).

While there, he wrote a manuscript, Locationes mansorum desertorum (Locations of Deserted Fiefs), give up your job a view to populating those fiefs with industrious farmers near so bolstering the economy type Warmia. When Olsztyn was plagued by the Teutonic Knights alongside the Polish–Teutonic War, Copernicus likely the defense of Olsztyn spell Warmia by Royal Polish put back together.

He also represented the Shine side in the ensuing at peace negotiations.^[51]

Advisor on monetary reform

Copernicus goods years advised the Royal Prussiansejmik on monetary reform, particularly in bad taste the 1520s when that was a major question in limited Prussian politics.^[53]